Confucianism defines an ideal society to be one in which everyone knows their place. Instead of punishments for wrongdoing, this doctrine advocates a culture that is ingrained into the social consciousness, such that deviating from the accepted norm results in shame, and provides a deterrent for wrongdoing. The doctrine emphasizes the need for virtue, and progressing in society within the boundaries of authority. It advocates a hierarchical class system based on one's achievements, knowledge and wisdom.
This type of thinking is particularly prevalent in Japan. The traditional religion of Japan is Shinto, which considers everything in nature to have a spiritual essence. It is related to Paganism and Shamanism. Shamanism involves beliefs and practices pertaining to communication with the spirit world. Japan is also influenced by Confucianism. For example, the Japanese bow to each other frequently, and the extent to which two people bow is dependent on their relative status in society. Redundancy or loss of status can lead to suicide due to the shame that it causes. Confucianism influenced the Samurai culture, the warrior caste of ancient Japan. If a Samurai warrior were dishonoured, he would cut open his stomach and kill himself. The idea of an honourable death still plays a part in modern Japanese society, and promotes suicide. Confucianism may also be to blame for a failure to help the poor in Japanese society. For example, the welfare system is poorly developed, and people are obliged to seek help from their families if they encounter financial difficulty. Receiving welfare is seen to be shameful. In one reported case, a woman did not apply for welfare and starved to death.
Confucianism has also played a significant role in Chinese culture. China is a very old nation and has been influenced by three main theologies; Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The Chinese culture also centers around folk religion and mythology.
The main Confucian texts are 'Confucian Analects', 'The Great Learning', 'The Doctrine of the Mean' and 'The Book of Mencius'. The Analects are a series of sayings attributed to Confucius around 500BC. Confucianism promotes accepting your place in society, and the effect on Chinese culture has probably made it more easy for the dictatorial government to remain in power. The Confucian concept of shame acting as a means of discipline is evident in the Chinese education system, highlighted on a recent edition of BBC4's 'Chinese School' in which a young child was humiliated for failing to keep an eraser in good condition.
Here are some verses from the Confucian Analects:
Book 1, 2:2
"Filial piety and fraternal submission!-- are they not the root of
all benevolent actions?" Emphasis is placed on knowing your place in society through relationships, particularly with family. The importance placed on family relations also led to the worship of ancestors.
Book 1, 5-6
"The Master said, 'To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper seasons.'
The Master said, 'A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies." Much of the text is about ruling over people, and promotes a society in which people are easier to rule over; emphasis is placed on respect and submission to those who are seen to be social superiors.
Book 1, 8:3
"Have no friends not equal to yourself."
Book 2, 3:1-2
"The Master said, 'If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good.'" A social culture is advocated to provide a deterrent for wrongdoing.
Book 4, 5:1
"The Master said, 'Riches and honours are what men desire. If it cannot be obtained in the proper way, they should not be held. Poverty and meanness are what men dislike. If it cannot be avoided in the proper way, they should not be avoided.'" This advocates social progression within the boundaries of authority.
Book 5, 15
"The Master said of Tsze-ch'an that he had four of the characteristics of a superior man:-- in his conduct of himself, he was humble; in serving his superiors, he was respectful; in nourishing the people, he was kind; in ordering the people, he was just.'"
Book 6, 20
"Fan Ch'ih asked what constituted wisdom. The Master said, 'To give one's self earnestly to the duties due to men, and, while respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom.' He asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, 'The man of virtue makes the difficulty to be overcome his first business, and success only a subsequent consideration;-- this may be called perfect virtue.'" Wisdom is defined to be doing your duties in society.
Book 7, 6:1-4
"The Master said, 'Let the will be set on the path of duty. Let every attainment in what is good be firmly grasped. Let perfect virtue be accorded with. Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts.'" Again, the importance of duty is emphasized.
Book 9, 22
"The Master said, 'A youth is to be regarded with respect. How do we know that his future will not be equal to our present? If he reach the age of forty or fifty, and has not made himself heard of, then indeed he will not be worth being regarded with respect.'" This emphasizes a need to make a name for yourself in society.
Many people asked Confucius what 'perfect virtue' was and what constituted a 'superior man'. Every time he gave a different answer.
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Book 12, 1:1-2
"Yen Yuan asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, 'To subdue one's self and return to propriety, is perfect virtue. If a man can for one day subdue himself and return to propriety, all under heaven will ascribe perfect virtue to him. Is the practice of perfect virtue from a man himself, or is it from others?'
Yen Yuan said, 'I beg to ask the steps of that process.' The Master replied, 'Look not at what is contrary to propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propriety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety.' Yen Yuan then said, 'Though I am deficient in intelligence and vigour, I will make it my business to practice this lesson.'"
Book 12, 2
"Chung-kung asked about perfect virtue. The
Master said, 'It is, when you go abroad, to behave to every one
as if you were receiving a great guest; to employ the people as
if you were assisting at a great sacrifice; not to do to others as
you would not wish done to yourself; to have no murmuring
against you in the country, and none in the family.' Chung-kung
said, 'Though I am deficient in intelligence and vigour, I will
make it my business to practise this lesson.'" This verse and Mencius Book 7 Part 1 Chapter 4 contain statements similar to the second commandment of Jesus, which is a positive aspect of Confucianism.
Book 12, 3:1-3
"Sze-ma Niu asked about perfect virtue.
The Master said, 'The man of perfect virtue is cautious
and slow in his speech.'
Cautious and slow in his speech!' said Niu;-- 'is this
what is meant by perfect virtue?'
The Master said, 'When a
man feels the difficulty of doing, can he be other than cautious
and slow in speaking?'"
Book 12, 4:1-3
"Sze-ma Niu asked about the superior man.
The Master said, 'The superior man has neither anxiety nor
fear.'
'Being without anxiety or fear!' said Nui;-- 'does this
constitute what we call the superior man?'
The Master said, 'When internal examination discovers
nothing wrong, what is there to be anxious about, what is there
to fear?'"
"The Duke Ai inquired of Yu Zo, saying, 'The year is one of scarcity, and the returns for expenditure are not sufficient;-- what is to be done?'
Yu Zo replied to him, 'Why not simply tithe the people?'
'With two tenths, said the duke, 'I find it not enough;-- how could I do with that system of one tenth?'
Yu Zo answered, 'If the people have plenty, their prince will not be left to want alone. If the people are in want, their prince cannot enjoy plenty alone.'" This is a discussion about taxation and tithing in the context of government.
Book 13, 10-12
"The Master said, 'If there were (any of the
princes) who would employ me, in the course of twelve
months, I should have done something considerable. In three
years, the government would be perfected.'
The Master said, 'If good men were to govern a
country in succession for a hundred years, they would be able
to transform the violently bad, and dispense with capital
punishments. True indeed is this saying!'
The Master said, 'If a truly royal ruler were to
arise, it would still require a generation, and then virtue would
prevail.'" The text continues to advocate a form of government.
Book 17, 3
"The Master said, 'There are only the wise of
the highest class, and the stupid of the lowest class, who cannot
be changed.'" This demonstrates the views of the lower classes in the hierarchical classification system.
Book 17, 25
"The Master said, 'Of all people, girls and servants are the most difficult to behave to. If you are familiar with them, they lose their humility. If you maintain a reserve towards them, they are discontented.'" In the hierarchical system of Confucianism, women were expected to be subordinate to their fathers, husbands and sons. In extreme cases, female babies were killed because male children were preferred. The painful practice of foot-binding for women was common in China, because men preferred it.
Book 20, 2:3
"Tsze-chang then asked, 'What are meant by the four bad things?'
The Master said, 'To put the people to death without having instructed them;-- this is called cruelty. To require from them, suddenly, the full tale of work, without having given them warning;-- this is called oppression. To issue orders as if without urgency, at first, and, when the time comes, to insist on them with severity;-- this is called injury. And, generally, in the giving pay or rewards to men, to do it in a stingy way;-- this is called acting the part of a mere official.'" This implies that it is acceptable to put someone to death if you have previously instructed them, and also to oppress someone if you have given them warning that you are going to do so.
In summary, Confucianism is a system of hierarchical class which serves to restrict the freedom of individuals in the interests of the society in which they live by promoting concepts like honour, virtue and shame. It advocates submission to those who are seen to be social superiors and older family members. However, it serves to create a society in which few people would want to live, due to inequality and restricted freedom.
